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GARDEN BOOK 



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Published by 

The Wisconsin State Horticultural Society 

Madison 
1922 



THE 
WISCONSIN GARDEN BOOK 




Published by 
The Wisconsin State Horticultural Society 

r 

Madison 
1922 



s^-^^^ 

.M^^ 



FOREWORD 



While the lessons in this garden booklet were pre- 
pared for the guidance of beginners in gardening the 
experienced gardener may, perchance, profit by read- 
ing them. 

Nothing contained herein is new; the subject matter 
has been published again and again as supplements to 
Wisconsin Horticulture and the practices described 
are as old as the art of gardening. The only merit 
claimed is brevity. No unnecessary words have been 
used and it is believed few of importance have been 
omitted. 

Many writers, all practical gardeners, have contrib- 
uted to these pages, so many that it is unfair to name one 
without naming all. We will call it then, A Wisconsin 
Garden Book, for Wisconsin Gardeners, by Wisconsin 
Gardeners. 

Frederic Cranefield, 

Secretary State Horticultural Society. 






GETTING READY FOR THE GARDEN 

^ Don't waste your effort next summer in gardening in 

competition with trees and shade. It can't be done success- 
fully. Hoeing, watering and fertilizing cannot make up for 
lack of sunlight. Many gardeners try to make this substitu- 
tion and fail. Good garden tracts may be spoiled by worth- 
less, often self-planted, trees or shrubs. Cut them out so 
your vegetables will not have to compete with them for sun- 
light, food, and water. You will probably find, also, that your 
back yard looks better without them. 

It is well to remember that although trees on the north 
side of the garden do not shade it yet their roots often extend 
far into the plot and take food and moisture from the soil, 
making it unprofitable to plant fruits and vegetables near the 
base of the trees. 

If it is impractical to remove the offending plants, or if 
buildings shade your garden for the greater part of the day 
begin at once to make arrangements for a suitable garden 
tract. Ask the aid of the local organization which is helping 
to get gardeners and the garden tracts together. 

The Garden Plan 

What kind of a house would a carpenter build without a 
plan? How would a garden which was planned, row by 
row, while the planting was being done compare with one 
carefully planned in advance of planting? The professional 
gardener finds a plan necessary for best results. A definite 
plan is of even more importance for the small garden if the 
best results are to be secured. Haphazard, hit-or-miss garden 
planting usually results in poor use of the soil and lessened 
production. A good plan saves much valuable time at plant- 
ing because the gardener doesn't have to stand around and 
figure out where things are to go. 

As soon as you know where your garden is to be, measure 
your tract and then plan your garden on paper. A good 
working plan should show: 



1. Location of the different crops. 

2. Distances between rows. 

3. If more than one crop is to occupy the same area during 
the season. 

4. Approximate dates for making different plantings of 
lettuce, peas, radishes or other vegetables of which more 
than one planting is made. 

Use heavy paper and ink so that your plan will stand a 
season's use in the garden. 

It is well to use a definite and fairly large scale in show- 
ing distance between rows. For a small garden one-fourth or 
one-half inch on the plan to every foot in the garden is a 
convenient scale. The more carefully your plan is made the 
greater will be the retunis from your garden. 

In making a garden there are certain things to remember. 

1. Make every foot of land work all the time. As soon as 
one crop is harvested another should take its place if there 
is room for its proper growth. Practically all of the garden 
should grow two crops and part of it ought to produce three. 
Warm season crops such as beans and tomatoes, and late 
seeded crops like turnips may follow early cool season crops 
such as lettuce, spinach, radishes and onion sets. 

2. Vegetables which can be stored for winter use should 
be considered first. The vegetables will be more appreciated 
when the supply is low and the price is high. 

3. First plan for the long season crops — the short season 
crops will take care of themselves. Grow short season crops 
(lettuce, radishes, spinach) between the rows of long season 
crops. Globe radishes may be grown in the rows of carrots, 
parsnips and beets. Small, early-maturing vegetables can 
be grown between the young plants of cabbage, tomatoes, or 
corn In hills. 

4. If your garden is small you cannot afford to grow crops 
requiring lots of space. Potatoes, corn, and vine crops should 
usually be left out of the small garden. If these are grown 
the smaller, quick-growing crops should occupy the space 
until it is needed by the permanent crop. 

5. Foliage crops (lettuce, spinach) are likely to do better 
In partial shade than the fruit crops (tomatoes, beans). 

6. Do not plant high-growing plants (corn, tomatoes to be 
staked) where they will shade sun-loving pl'ants. The diffi- 

[41 



culties arising from shading can be greatly lessened by 
having the rows run north and south. 

7. Unless you have had previous experience do not waste 
miuch time on cauliflower, peppers, egg plant or other crops 
that are hard to grow or of doubtful value. These crops so 
often fail due to weather conditions or slight errors in cul- 
ture that it is usually advisable to give their space to more 
certain crops. 

8. Remember that In a small garden there Is plenty of 
space "up and down" but it is limited sidewise. Tomatoes 
should be trained to trellises or stakes. Tall growing peas 
trellised and planted between rows of smaller vegetables 
require no more space than dwarf varieties and usually 
produce larger crops. If you think you must grow cucumbers 
try the trellis method. 

9. Leave sufficient space between the rows to provide for 
good tillage. It is better to have slightly too much than too 
little space. The beginner will need a wider space between 
the rows than the experienced gardener. Be on the safe side. 

Space Needed for Various Vegetables 
The distance between the rows will vary with the method 
of cultivation, the size of the variety, and the fertility of the 
soil. The distances given below are for hand or wheel-hoe 
cultivation and average fertile soil. 

8- 9 inches — Peas when planted in double rows. 
9-12 inches — Radish. 
12 inches — Cress. 
12-15 inches — ^Beets, carrots, lettuce, onion, spinach. 
15-18 inches — Bush beans, endive, parsley, rutabaga, sal- 
sify, turnip. 
18-20 inches — Parsnips, pepper. 
18-24 inches — Cabbage (early), chard, kohlrabi. 
24-30 inches — Cabbage (late), peas, tomatoes (staked). 
30-36 inches — Egg-plant, potatoes, sweet corn. 
30-48 inches — Celery (depends largely on method of 

blanching). 
42-48 inches — Squash (bush), tomatoes (unstaked). 

4- 6 feet — Cucumber. 

5- 6 feet — Muskmelon. 

7- 9 feet — Squash (running). 
8-10 feet — Pumpkin. 

[5] 



When vegetables of different kinds are planted in adjoining 
rows the distance between the rows should be approximately 
one-half of the total distance allowed for the crops. For ex- 
ample, if celery, for which is allowed 4 feet between rows, 
and cabbage, for which a distance of 2 feet is allowed, 
occupy adjoining rows the distance between the rows should 
be about 3 feet. 

Time Crops Occupy Land 

The length of time between starting the crop in the garden 
and that at which it is ready to use and the time it will 
occupy the land are important factors in garden planning. 
Seasonal conditions and the variety will greatly modify the 
time required for vegetables to be ready for use. 

The following list shows the average time needed to grow 
the different vegetables. In planning for crops to follow 
early vegetables or which will occupy the space used by an 
early crop, add to the time given in the table below the 
probable length of time required to use the early crop or 
the length of time required for it to become unfit for use. 

The dates given are the approximate dates of planting at 
Madison. For the central part of the state the dates would 
be from 10 to 12 days later, and for upper Wisconsin 18 to 20 
days later. 

In the table which follows, * placed before the name of a 
crop indicates that other plantings may be made; ** indi- 
cates that the crop occupies the land until the end of the 
season. In case of *** other plantings may be made as the 
crop is used, but the winter crop occupies the land until the 
end of the season. Early cabbage will occupy the land until 
August 15 or later. 



[6] 



Crop 



♦Bean (bush) snap 

**Bean (bush) dry 

**Bean (pole) 

**Beets 

Cabbage (early plants) 
**Cabbag-e (late plants). 

**Carrots 

**Celery (plants) 

*Corn (early) 

**Corn (late) 

Cress 

♦♦Cucumber 

♦♦Egg plant 

'♦♦Kohlrabi 

♦Lettuce (seed) 

♦Lettuce (plants) 

♦♦Muskmelon 

♦♦Onions (seed) 

♦♦Onions (sets) 

♦Parsley 

♦♦Parsnip 

♦Peas 

♦♦Peppers 

Potato (early) 

♦♦Potato (late) 

♦♦Pumpkin 

♦Radish 

♦♦Radish (winter) 

♦♦Rutabaga 

♦♦Salsify 

♦Spinach 

♦♦Squash (bush) 

♦♦Squash (runner) 

♦♦Tomato (plants) 

Turnips (spring) 

♦♦Turnips (late) 



I Ready 
for use 
(weeks) 



I 

May 10-15 

May 10-15 

May 10-15 

April 15-20 

April 25-30 

June 25 

April 15-20 

June 20 

May 5-10 

May 15, June 10 

April 15-20 

May 15-20 

June 5-10 

April 20-25 

April 15-20 

April 20 

June 1 (set out plants 
started under glass) . | 

April 15-20 

April 15-20 

April 15-20 

April 15-20 

April 15-20 

June 5-10 

May 1-5 

June 1-10 

May 15-20 

April 15-20 

July 15 

July 1 

April 15-20 

April 10-15 

May 15-20 

May 15-20 

May 15-20 

April 15-20 

July 20 



7 to 8 



8 to 9 

8 to 9 

12 to 13 



9 to 11 
7 to 8 
9 to 10 



4 to 5 



9 to 10 
6 to 8 
4 to 6 



9 to 10 
12 to 14 



to 10 



10 to 12 



4 to 6 



4 to 6 



to 10 



iri 



HINTS FOR THE HOME GARDENER 

The beginner in gardening is apt to attempt too much. A 
small garden well tilled is better than a larger one neglected. 

Amateur or home gardens may be divided into two classes: 
the small back lot gardens ranging in size from 6x10 feet 
to those of as many yards, and the gardens of the more 
ambitious amateurs occupying an entire lot or even more. 

To Plant or Not to Plant 

In the small garden confine the list to kinds requiring but 
little room such as: 

Bean, beet, cabbage, carrot, lettuce, onion, parsnip, pea, 
radish, spinach and tomato. Not much more should be at- 
tempted except that late turnips or rutabagas may be grown 
as succession crops. 

These Demand Much Elbow Room— Sweet corn, cucumber, 
squash and pumpkin require much room and with potatoes 
should be attempted only where plenty of land is available. 

These Are Too Fancy— Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, en- 
dive, egg plant, peppers and lima beans are kinds that re- 
quire rather more skill to grow than the average amateur is 
apt to possess and should not be included in the beginners' 
list. 

Soil conditions and the taste of the gardener are factors 
that should be considered. 

The beginner is usually very ambitious and is apt to try 
everything named in the catalog. The old-timer confines his 
efforts to a few kinds, the ones most in demand in the 
kitchen. 

The "Best" Varieties 

Ask each of a dozen expert gardeners to make a list of 
"best" varieties and the result will be a dozen different lists, 
for each has his favorites, but on discussion it will usually 
be found that their distinctions are too slight to be consid- 
ered seriously. All the important garden vegetables are 

19] 



classified by the expert as to types, such as the round rad- 
ishes and the long radishes, round beets and flat beets, etc. 
Each seedsman has varieties which he exploits as the "best" 
of these types. 

The following lists may not include the best kinds in the 
opinion of many expert gardeners but all are standard, re- 
liable and thoroughly tested and at least plenty good enough 
for anybody: 

Bean, Dwarf: Refuge wax; Refugee 1000 to 1 (green pod). 
Pole or climbing: Cranberry or Horticultural; Kentucky 
Wonder. The last two varieties are climbing or pole beans 
and are recommended where space is very limited. The 
Cranberry, a climbing or pole variety, is very prolific and 
partly matured beans shelled are as good as Lima Beans. 

Beet: Detroit dark red or Crosby's Egyptian. The first 
named is round, the second, flat or turnip shaped. 

Cabbage: For early cabbage Charleston Wakefield, for 
late Danish ball head and Copenhagen market. 

Carrot: Chantenay: This is a half-long carrot and better 
adapted to home gardens either for summer use or cellar 
storage than the Oxheart or other large types. 

Kohl Rabi: White Vienna. 

Lettuce: For early "leaf" lettuce either Curled Simpson 
or Grand Rapids. The Grand Rapids is rather better in 
quality than the Simpson, but does not grow as rapidly nor 
stand as much hardship. The Grand Rapids is ideal for hot- 
bed culture. 

For first crop head lettuce plant only May King; for late 
season California Cream Butter. 

Onion: Yellow Globe Danvers or Southport Red Globe. 

Parsnip: Hollow Crown. 

Pea: Laxtonian: This is one of the best of the large 
podded, early dwarf peas and may be sown in succession. 
Little Marvel is a good early. For a late maturing variety 
plant Champion of England, Telephone or Stratagem. The 
latter are tall growing kinds and require support. 

Radish: Early scarlet globe or any early round or turnip 
shaped variety sown in succession. For a later variety Crim- 
son Giant; does not get "pithy" in hot weather. 

Rutabaga: American Purple Top. 

Spinach: Bloomsdale Savoy. 

[10] 



Tomato: Chalk's Early Jewel; Bonnie Best; Late Stone. 

Turnip: Purple Top White Globe; the Yellow Globe is a 
large late maturing yellow flesh variety, closely resembling 
rutabaga and of better quality. 

Plants or Sets 

For early onions plant onion sets. For early cabbage and 
tomato buy plants; plants for late cabbage may be easily 
grown in the garden; plant a packet of seed at the time of 
sowing early vegetables. 

For the Gardener Who Has Plenty of Room and Time 

Cauliflower: Early Snow Ball. 

Celery: White Plume. 

Cucumber: Improved Long Green. 

Sweet Corn: Golden Bantam. 

Egg Plant: Black Beauty, 

Lima Beans: Burpee's Bush Lima, or Henderson's Bush 
Lima. 

Muskmelon: Milwaukee Market. 

Parsley: Champion Moss Curled; (Six plants enough). 

Peppers: Crimson Giant (sweet). 

How to Buy 

Buy seeds only from reliable seedsmen. They advertise 
in reliable papers. Avoid "bargains" in seeds, the best is 
the cheapest. The cost of seed is not a big item considering 
the returns. Penny packets and department store bargains 
are to be avoided. 

Quantity of Seed Required 

The problem of how much seed to buy is one beset with 
many difficulties and not easily solved. 

If we were certain that every seed we buy would germi- 
nate and produce a vigorous plant under the adverse condi- 
tions of soil and climate commonly encountered, we would 
need to buy but very little seed. 

Carrots, for instance, should be spaced at least two inches 
apart in the row for best results. A package of carrot seeds 
contains about 5000 seeds which spaced at two inches would 
be enough to plant over 800 feet of row. In practice an 
average packet is enough to plant a little less than 40 feet 

111] 



of row. Why use so much seed? Firstly, because not all 
seeds will germinate and as all the poor seeds may fall in 
one place we must allow enough to insure a good stand. 

Secondly: Conditions in the garden are never perfect for 
germination and growth and many of the plants perish be- 
fore reaching daylight. 

Thirdly: Seeds must be covered with earth, which is a 
dead weight that must be lifted by the plantlets. We must, 
therefore, plant seeds enough to afford lifting power to break 
the surface crust. 

Fewer seeds are required when sowing later in the season 
than for earlier sowings, as the ground is then more mellow 
and seeds come up easier. 

As amateur gardeners are interested only in small areas, 
ounces and quarts may be left out of consideration and atten- 
tion directed mainly to packets of seed. In order to learn 
something of the actual size or contents of "packets" offered 
by reliable seedsmen, 31 packets of seed were purchased 
from four seed firms and the seeds in each counted. The 
results follow: 



Seedsman 


c 
o 

*s 




o 
u 

O 






Oh 


'•S 

Pi 


p 

a 


0. 


A 


1210 

1016 

910 

1690 


5427 
3720' ■ 



335 
500 
356 
585 


156 

265 

258 

94 


257 
394 
340 
169 


1032 

1408 

1108 

790 


777 
990 
440 

782 


1126 


B 


850 


C 


700 


D 


1892 






Average 


1206 + 


4573 + 


444 


193 + 


290 


1084 + 


747 + 


1142 



Combining these figures with the experience of skilled 
gardeners as to the proper number of seeds to plant per 
inch or foot, one packet of onion seed will plant 10 feet of 
row, carrot 40 feet, beet 29 feet, bean 20 feet, pea 25 feet, 
radish 10 feet. 

Summing up it may be said that for the average family 
garden one packet of seed is enough of any of the kinds 
named except possibly peas and beans. By careful sowing 
one packet of most of the vegetables named is more than 
enough for the first planting and some may be saved for 
later planting. 



[12] 



EARLY PLANTS 

It is possible to have a garden without starting part of it 
indoors, but it is usually more expensive or less satisfactory. 

Of course if you are absolutely sure you are going to be able 
to buy good plants of the kinds you want, when you want 
them, then it may be best to let someone else grow them. 
But be very sure you won't be disappointed. Although it 
takes some work and space to grow good plants for setting 
out for early vegetables, the difficulties of growing them are 
often greatly magnified. 

Lettuce, chard, cabbage, and kohlrabi can be easily ma- 
tured if seed is planted in the garden after conditions have 
become favorable for their growth, but they may be had 
much earlier if started indoors or under glass. It is almost 
essential to start tomatoes, peppers, egg plant, and celery in 
this way if their production is to be such as to make it worth 
while to bother with them. 

Methods of Growing Early Vegetables 

Three methods are commonly used in producing plants for 
setting in the garden: Hotbeds, cold-frames and window 
boxes. The difficulty of securing the proper material for 
heating the hotbed, and the attention necessary to operate 
it successfully, make it of questionable value to the man 
with a small garden or to the beginner. 

Many city lot gardeners find the cold-frame more satisfac- 
tory. While plants cannot be secured quite so early as with 
the hotbed the cold-frame requires less attention and there is 
less danger of injury to the plants because of changing tem- 
peratures. It can be constructed without much expense by 
using storm sash. In addition to the plants for setting 
out, such crops as lettuce and radishes may be grown in it. 

The backyard gardener will usually find that starting the 
plants indoors is the plan best adapted to his conditions. 
Comparatively little space will be required to start enough 
plants for the first crop of lettuce, early cabbage and toma- 
toes. 

[13] 



Provide Good Soil. Where no provision was made last fall 
the question of the soil will be the most troublesome. You 
may be able to secure it from a greenhouse. If not resort 
to your own garden. Get the snow off a small area so as to 
encourage thawing. Some warm day in early March get your 
soil. If it is still frozen get it anyway, and let it thaw out 
indoors. If possible, secure a little sand to mix with it and 
to serve as a top layer in the seed box. Before attempting 
to start your seed box let the soil warm up and dry until it 
does not pack in a hard lump when squeezed in the hand. 

Shallow Seed Box. A shallow box is most satisfactory for 
starting the plants. Suitable ones can usually be secured at 
a grocery store. Cigar boxes 214 or 2l^ inches deep are con- 
venient, but somewhat deeper boxes are more desirable. 
Three or four will be sufficient to provide all the lettuce, 
cabbage and tomatoes used in the average garden. If the 
box has a tight bottom make a few small holes in this to 
provide drainage. 

Filling the Seed Box. Slightly more than enough soil to 
fill the box should be put in loosely and the surplus scraped 
off with a stick. This will leave the top smooth and level. 
Press the soil down, preferably using a small piece of board, 
being careful to leave the surface level. After it is pressed 
down, the top of the soil should be from one-fourth to one- 
half inch below the top of the box. If sand is to be had a 
better stand of plants will usually be secured if the last one- 
half inch of soil put into the box is sand. In this layer the 
seed may be sown. 

Sowing the Seeds. With the finger or a dull pointed stick 
make a shallow trench about one-fourth of an inch deep, 
preferably crosswise of the box. Using the packet or thumb 
and forefinger, scatter the seed in the trench. The thickness 
of sowing the seed depends largely on its germination ca- 
pacity. Do not sow too thickly as there is then more danger 
of the young plants rotting off. On the other hand, seeding 
should be thick enough to give a good stand. If the plants 
are too thick they should be thinned soon after they come 
above the surface. Press the seeds gently into the soil and 
cover them with a thin layer of soil. The distance between 
the rows depends somewhat on how long the plants are to 
be left before transplanting. Distances from li/4 to 2 inches 
are usual and convenient. 

114] 



Watering the Seeds. After sowing, water the seed box 
well, being careful not to wash the seed, particularly if dif- 
ferent varieties are to be grown in the same box. Enough 
water should be put on to moisten the whole body of soil in 
the box but not enough to cause it to become muddy. 

One of the objections often raised to growing early plants 
indoors is the damage resulting to furniture and rugs from 
watering. This can be overcome by setting the seed boxes in 
the sink or some other receptacle until all excess water has 
drained off. Then if the boxes are set on oil-cloth or heavy 
paper no damage should occur. 

Now cover the seed box with a pane of glass or other cover, 
which will prevent the loss of moisture and set the box in a 
warm place. As soon as the young plants break the soil, 
remove the cover. If it is left on, the plants have a tendency 
to become spindly or "leggy," and are likely to rot off. 

Care of Young Plants. The young plants will need careful 
attention as regards proper light, heat and water. Keep the 
seed box where it will get abundant light. Insufficient light 
results in spindly plants. It is better to have the temperature 
a little low than too high. High temperatures mean soft, 
spongy plants which are less likely to give good results when 
set out. 

How to Water Plants. More people fail in watering than 
in any other way. Some choke the plants, others drown them. 
Choking usually comes from applying small amounts at rather 
frequent intervals. Not enough water is applied to moisten 
the bottom soil, and the top is kept too wet, which encour- 
ages disease. 

Drowning is less frequent, especially if the seed box is 
provided with drainage openings. Water applied frequently 
in large amounts excludes air from the soil and the plants 
smother. 

Proper watering consists in putting on enough water to 
moisten all the soil in the box and then waiting until the 
surface of the soil begins to appear lighter in color before 
making another application. 

Damping off. Young plants that seem to be in good condi- 
tion sometimes begin to die in spots. The disease usually 
causing this condition is called "damping off" and unless it is 
checked all the plants may be killed. 



£15 1 



This disease is usually present in soil used in seed boxes 
unless it has been sterilized. It becomes active when the tem- 
perature is high and there is a large amount of moisture in 
the air around the plants or on the surface of the soil of 
the seed box. Proper watering, of course, will reduce the 
danger from "damping off." 

The disease should be checked as soon as it appears. Af- 
fected plants that have fallen over should be removed but 
care must be taken not to spread the disease. The next thing 
is to get rid of the excess moisture by setting the plants in 
the sunlight and' allowing the soil to become quite dry. One 
of the chief reasons for using sand in the top layer of the 
seed box is that it dries off readily so that there is less dan- 
ger from "damping off." Another way to dry the surface is to 
sprinkle dry sand over it. Plants should be thinned out if 
they are so thick that there is little circulation of air be- 
tween them. Another method of control is to spray the 
plants with potassium sulfide solution — 1 to 2 ounces of sul- 
fide to one gallon of water — but this is usually not necessary 
if other methods of control are promptly used. 

Giving the Seedlings Room. The young plants will soon 
begin to crowd each other and unless given more room will 
become long-stemmed or "leggy." To make good plants for 
setting out they must be either thinned or transplanted. The 
latter is the more common method. A box 12 inches square 
will hold 36 plants set 2 by 2 inches, or 64 when planted IVz 
by iy2 inches. Four boxes of this size, one for tomatoes, 
peppers and egg plants (if either of the latter are grown), 
one for lettuce, one for cabbage and cauliflower, and one 
for celery would meet the demands of the average gardener. 
The celery may be planted 1 by 1 inch, lettuce, cabbage and 
cauliflower li/^ by li/^ inch, and tomatoes, egg plants and 
peppers 2 by 2 inches. The same general care should be 
given the plants after transplanting as when they were in 
the seed box. For two or three days after transplanting it is 
well not to give so high a temperature nor so full light as 
before transplanting. 

Hardening Off. Many have success in growing plants in- 
doors but lose a large portion of them in setting into the gar- 
den. Anyone of a number of things may be responsible for 
such losses. One of the common ones is subjecting the plant 

[IG] 



to too sudden and great a change. A plant requires some 
time to adjust itself to new conditions. Because of this it 
should be accustomed to the conditions of the garden grad- 
ually. This process is known as "hardening off." Ten days 
to two weeks or more before time for setting the plants in 
the garden begin to get them ready for the change. Begin 
by setting the box out in the sun at noon for a few minutes. 
Repeat from day to day when favorable until the plant can 
be left out continuously. Transplanting will then result in 
much less loss than if a sudden change is made. 

Where plants which transplant with difficulty, such as cu- 
cumbers and melons, are started indoors, or when it is de- 
sired to have the plants unusually large before setting out, 
flower-pots are frequently used. Unless the gardener has a 
hotbed or cold-frame or the number of plants desired is small, 
this method is not practical because of the space required. 

Instead of setting the plant from the seed box into a larger 
box it" is put in a small flower-pot. It may remain in the pot 
until set in the field, or it may be moved to a larger pot. 
Various devices are used as substitutes for pots. Two of the 
more common are the bottomless strawberry box and a tin 
can with the bottom removed and the side split, so that it 
may be readily removed from around the plant. The straw- 
berry box is better than the can for this purpose. 



LIT] 



GARDEN SOILS AND GARDEN MAKING 

The soils expert groups soils, with fine distinctions, into 
many classes. The farmer and the gardener call them "light" 
or "heavy," "rich" or "poor," "warm" or "cold" soils. 

In the language of the farmer a light soil is one containing 
more sand than clay. It is easily worked either in spring or 
summer, and is also a warm soil for it absorbs heat more 
readily than a clay soil. But as a rule, sandy soils are lower 
in plant food elements than are the heavier soils. 

The heavy soil is one having more clay than sand and in 
proportion as the clay predominates it is heavy and cold 
but it usually contains abundant plant food. 

It is plain, then, that an ideal garden soil is one that is 
neither very light nor very heavy. It does not follow, how- 
ever, that we should fail to have a garden even if the ideal 
soil is not available. Some very excellent gardens have been 
made on very unpromising sites. It's largely a matter of hard 
work. 

Don't Disturb Much Subsoil 

Below the 4 to 8 inches of mellow, usually black, surface 
soil of tilled land lies a different kind of soil called the sub- 
soil. It is not mellow because it has probably not been 
stirred for at least ten thousand years. It is usually red clay. 
Sometimes it is blue clay. Whatever its color gardeners 
should leave it undisturbed and not turn much of it up on 
the surface of the garden by too deep spading. An inch or 
two won't do any harm. It contains plant food but usually in 
a form that is not available until sunshine, rain and wind 
have acted on it for a few years. You can't afford to wait 
so leave the subsoil where it is; it will hold water for your 
plants next summer. 

Make Haste Slowly 

No matter what kind of so'il you have in your garden it 
must not be worked when it is wet. If it is it will be hard, 
lumpy and wholly intractable all season. You will lose and 
not gain by working soil before it is fit to work. 

[10] 



When is it fit? There is no hard and fast rule but here is 
a simple test that will answer all practical purposes. 

Turn up a spadeful of soil, grab a handful and squeeze it. 
If it retains the shape of your hand and the finger marks, 
and is smooth and pasty-like to the touch, it is not fit. If 
you cannot squeeze the mass lightly without breaking it, if 
it crumbles in your hand, go ahead, there is no time to lose. 
Such a rough and ready, off-hand solution of so difficult a 
problem as this requires the application of common sense 
along with it but the writer feels perfectly safe in leaving 
it in just this way. 

First Aids to tlie Gardener 

(1) If your garden is anywhere but on a side hill you can 
probably advance by several days the time when it will be 
fit to work by a little digging and ditching so as to carry off 
the surface water. This should be done as soon as the frost 
is out of the ground. 

(2) Instead of spading or plowing the entire garden before 
it is fit, it is usually possible to find an odd corner somewhere 
on the premises, even if only 2x4 feet, that is higher and 
drier than the garden. Maybe it is the flower bed in the 
front yard or a border alongside the house. Dig and rake 
this and plant a little lettuce seed and a little radish seed, or 
mix them, and a few onion sets. This emergency garden will 
serve as a curb on your very natural impatience, give some 
early vegetables and will not interfere in the least with flower 
gardening later in the season. 

(3) Or, cover a space in the back yard, 4x6 feet, with coal 
ashes a foot deep and on top of this 2 to 4 inches of soil. 
This quantity of dry soil can usually be found somewhere 
nearby, even if borrowed from a high spot in a neighboring 
lot or field. Build around this garden a rough frame of 
boards, sow seeds, and cover frame nights and on cold or 
rainy days with two storm windows or, lacking these, with 
cheese cloth. Whatever else you do keep out of the garden 
until the soil is fit to work. 

Manures 

The soil of almost any garden is capable of producing satis- 
factory crops without manure of any kind if properly pre- 

[20] 



pared in the spring and poperly cultivated during the growing 
season. 

The right kind of manure properly applied will certainly 
give increased yields but the wrong kind may be worse than 
none at all. The right kind is well-rotted stable manure; it 
is fine in texture and mixes readily with the soil. Also it is 
"pre-digested"; the plant food contained in it has been made 
ready, by the process of decay, for use by the plants. 

The wrong kind is fresh stable manure containing much 
straw or litter. This must all be turned under so deeply that 
the plant roots do not get to it until midsummer or it inter- 
feres with cultivation. Being coarse it serves to "dry out" 
the soil by interfering with the movements of soil water. 
Better use none at all. 

Commercial Fertilizers 

Of the mineral fertilizers, sodium nitrate and potash are 
best. The various stock-yards products including pulverized 
sheep manure, are quick acting fertilizers that may either 
be mixed with the soil when spading or plowing or used 
later as a top dressing. 

Mineral fertilizers must be applied with great caution to 
growing plants, as in slight excess they may kill the plants 
outright. (% to iy2 lbs. of nitrate of soda per square rod 
is enough. Of acid phosphate 2 to 2i/^ lbs. per square rod 
should be sufficient.) 

These are all very expensive and seldom give adequate 
returns to the amateur for the money invested in them. 

None of these statements should be construed as an argu- 
ment against the use of fertilizers. The market gardener 
knows that he can make money by using extraordinary quan- 
tities of fertilizers; in fact he is not apt to make much money 
unless he does use a liberal amount. Your case is different; 
you are not so much concerned about making a profit on 
your land and time as in growing a respectable crop of vege- 
tables. You can do it without any fertilizer if you handle 
your soil right. 

Coal Ashes 

Heavy soils may be much improved by a liberal use of 
coal ashes. Unless much wood has been burned in the fur- 

[21] 



nace in addition to the coal there is no danger in using too 
much. It Is better to sift the ashes to remove clinkers which 
prove a source of annoyance when hoeing. Coal ashes con- 
tain little or no fertility. 

Plowing 

Small plots, say 20 by 50 feet or even larger, may be 
spaded, but when the plot exceeds one-tenth of an acre and 
is so situated that a team can be used it will pay to have it 
plowed if it can be properly done. 

A farmer knows how to plow, but the average city man who 
happens to own a plow, doesn't. He thinks he does, but he 
doesn't. If possible, get a farmer, or an ex-farmer to plow; 
you won't need to tell him how to do it; he knows more 
about it than you do. If you are so unfortunate as to get a 
city farmer to plow suggest to him that all of the soil ought 
to be turned over; that a plow that is made to cut only 10 
or 12 inches cannot by any possibility turn 16 or 18 inches, 
the rest will merely be covered by the soil really plowed. 
This is the "cut and cover" trick, a money maker for the man 
who is plowing by the job but poor business for the gar- 
dener. Further suggest to him that it is a saving of horse 
flesh to plow only 4 to 6 inches deep rather than to root 
around in the clay subsoil and turn it on top. This will 
please him and help you. 

The Harrow 

If the garden-to-be is sod, plowing is not enough. The time 
and strength required to work down tough, sod-plowed land 
with handtools is really more than the crops that can be 
grown on it will be worth. A disk harrow will thoroughly 
pulverize and level the ground after plowing and is the best 
tool to use. In lieu of this a heavy spike-tooth harrow may 
be used but once is not enough. Five or six times will be 
much better. 

Spading 

There is a knack of spading that can be acquired only by 
practice. It is quite as easy to cut and cover as in plowing. 
The spading fork with four flat tines is better than a spade 

[32] 



for digging; it is lighter, penetrates hard soil easier than a 
spade and is easier to keep clean and bright. A gardener 
who has had long experience in spading describes the process 
as follows: 

"Strong shoes with good solid soles should be worn when 
spading or the feet will become sore." 

"Start at one corner of the garden with the back toward 
the ground to be spaded. Shove the spade well into the 
ground using the ball of the foot to push the spade in. In 
solid ground, especially in starting, several shoves may be 
necessary to send the spade well in. Lift out the spadeful 
of soil and throw it from you across the hole, turning it over 
as it is thrown out. If lumpy, as it is apt to be, hit it with 
the back of the spade. Move sideways the width of the 
spade and repeat the operation until the other side of the 
garden is reached. Then step back and work over to the 
starting side again, but throwing the dirt this time forward 
into the ditch made the first time across. Take as large a 
spadeful as may be sliced off quickly and easily." 

Raking 

If spading is a knack, raking a freshly dug garden is a 
fine art. By a proper use of the rake lumps are broken and 
the surface leveled. Of this the expert quoted above says: 

"Level the ground and make the soil fine with a hand rake. 
The use of a rake offers opportunity to develop considerable 
skill in moving dirt quickly from high spots and filling in low 
places in the operation of raking. 

"If the garden is small and maximum results from the 
space are desired, further working of the soil will pay. If the 
soil is of a heavy clayey nature and the spading and raking 
fail to break up the lumps we usually 'tramp' the ground to 
further break the lumps. That is, we step back and forth 
over the garden with footsteps close together so as to pack 
the soil and crush lumps. A roller would do the work more 
quickly and easily. It is then raked over again, and, if neces- 
sary, we spade and rake it a second time. 

"Even in the gardens that have been plowed with a horse 
it will often pay to spade up corners not well plowed or that 
have been heavily packed where the horses have turned. 

£23] 



"All of the garden will not be planted immediately follow- 
ing the first working of the soil and if the surface is packed 
with beating rains it must be worked over again before 
planting. 

"It is very important that the soil be in the best possible 
condition before seeds and plants are put In. 

"No amount of after cultivation will make up for careless 
work in the first preparation of the garden," 

This cannot be emphasized too much, especially in the 
case of the smaller seeds. The infant of the plant world is 
not unlike the infant of the animal world; it must be afforded 
the best possible opportunity for development. 



124] 



SOWING THE SEED 

Part I. The Art of Seed Sowing 

Seed sowing usually proves a stumbling block to the be- 
ginner in gardening. He gets along very nicely after the 
plants are up but his trouble lies in getting them started. 

There are apt to be many vacant rows in the beginner's 
garden, while he waits impatiently for the plants to appear 
and blames the seedsrnan for selling poor seeds. In most 
cases the seed is all right; the trouble lies with the planter. 
More failures result from improper planting than from poor 
seeds. 

Making a Seed Bed 

For the best results the soil must be mellow, moist, and 
free from lumps. If the surface has dried since plowing or 
spading and is lumpy it will pay to turn over two or three 
inches of the surface soil with a spading fork so as to have 
a moist and mellow bed for the seeds. Then rake and rake 
again until the surface soil, for a depth of at least two inches, 
is fine and mellow. In this connection let us quote from 
Circular No. 4. 

"It is very important that the soil be in the best possible 
condition before seeds and plants are put in." No amount 
of after cultivation will make up for careless work in the 
first preparation of the garden. 

Have Straight Rows 

Rows should be straight, not alone for the sake of appear- 
ance but for convenience in cultivating. In small gardens 
the garden line is most practical. Hemp rope of clothesline 
size is excellent. Use strong stakes that can be driven with 
the back of the spade. With the line drawn taut make a 
furrow, deep or shallow according to size of seeds, using a 
pointed stick or end of hoe handle. 

[ 25 ] 



Dropping the Seed 

To sow seeds by hand evenly is an art that can be acquired 
only by considerable experience. If, in the beginning, the 
seeds are poured from the paper packet into a cup, both 
temper and seeds may be conserved. The cup is not apt to 
blow away and spill the seeds. 

Grasp a pinch of seeds between the thumb and forefinger 
and scatter with a rolling motion. That's about all that can 
be set down in print about it; the rest must be learned from 
experience. The expert will space seeds by this method as 
evenly as a seed drill and without apparent effort. 

The amount of seed to sow has been discussed. No hard 
and fast rule can be given. Better use too much seed than 
too little. 

Cover the seeds with the back of the rake, pushing lumps 
aside when possible so as to cover only with fine soil. Now 
press the soil firmly over the seeds either by stepping lightly 
along the row, one foot only, or patting firmly with the back 
of the hoe. This is held the most important step in seed 
sowing. After firming the soil rake lightly to form a mulch. 

Marking the Rows 

Set pegs or stakes at both ends of rows as soon as seeds 
are covered. In this way the space between the rows may 
be hoed or raked to keep down weeds before the plants 
appear. The best time to kill weeds is just before they 
appear and a light hoeing or raking within a week after seed 
sowing may save much backache later. 

For information that will serve as a guide for operations 
another season the variety and the date of planting should 
be written heavily in pencil on the head stake of each row. 

These directions and cautions as to careful preparation of 
soil have particular reference to small seeds like lettuce, 
radish, turnip, and onion, as these need a fine seed bed. 
Larger seeds such as beet and spinach will come through 
very well if the soil is not quite so fine, but they will appre- 
ciate the better treatment. 

In making furrows for peas, beans and corn use a corner 
of the hoe. Practice counts here also. 

[26] 



Depth of Planting 

"Seeds should not be planted deeper than Is necessary to 
insure the proper degree of moisture." — Goff. If we keep in 
mind that the reason we cover seeds with soil is to insure 
the moisture essential for germination it helps us greatly in 
determining the proper depth for planting. 

The depth of planting may be regulated largely by the 
size of the seed. Large seeds may be planted deeper than 
small ones. (One important exception to be noted later.) 

No definite rule can be given. Any table giving in inches 
or fractions of an inch the depths at which seeds should be 
planted is misleading, for much depends on the texture and 
tillage of the soil; the amount of moisture it contains, the 
date of planting and other variable factors. One rule, subject 
to many exceptions, is to cover seeds three to five times 
their diameter (thickness). 

Small seeds like carrots, lettuce, radish, cabbage and tur- 
nip, ought to be covered with one-fourth to one-third inch of 
soil. If the soil is very light (sandy) they ought to be 
planted a little deeper to insure moisture sufficient for ger- 
mination. Beet, spinach and parsnip may be covered deeper, 
one-half inch if the soil is not too heavy. Peas and corn 
should be covered with about two inches of soil, beans not 
over one inch. Beans lift the seed above ground and if 
planted too deep will break their necks in the effort to get 
through. For this reason something is to be gained by plant- 
ing in hills; that is, four to six seeds in a place, these a foot 
apart. If planted singly, space 11/2 to 2 inches apart. Do 
not plant peas in "hills" but singly, about an inch apart. 

Odds and Ends 

A "hill" in garden language does not .mean an elevation 
but refers to a number of seeds planted in a group rather 
than singly in a row. 

Cucumbers, melons, squash, and so forth, are commonly 
planted in hills by the market gardener for convenience in cul- 
tivation. There is no good reason for doing it in the small 
garden. Plant the seeds flatwise 1 to 2 inches apart, the 
plants to be thinned later, and cover one-half inch deep. 

[27] 



Seeds planted in midsummer for succession crops, j^hould 
be covered somewhat deeper than when planted in the fepring, 
in order to insure needed moisture. The soil will be more 
mellow and warmer than in the spring— both factors favor- 
ing germination. 

Peas as well as com and others of the "grass" family will 
push through greater depths of soil than beans and others 
that project the seed or seed leaves above the ground. 

Germination (sprouting) of seeds may be hastened by soak- 
ing in water 24 to 36 hours before planting. Soaked seeds 
should not be allowed to become dry before planting. 

The potato is not a seed and scarcely anything here writ- 
ten applies to it. Cut the potatoes into pieces, each having 
one or more "eyes" or buds, and plant the pieces singly 10 
to 12 inches apart in furrows 4 to 6 inches deep. 

Part II 
Reasons for Some of the Operations Described in Part I 

Every seed contains an embryo plant. In order to germi- 
nate (sprout) and produce a living plant three things are 
essential — moisture, warmth and air (oxygen). If any one 
of these is lacking, seeds will fail to germinate. If any one 
of these essentials is not present in sufficient amount, ger- 
mination will be tardy. It is very important that seeds 
should germinate promptly or else decay will result. 

Seeds absorb water promptly when placed in contact with 
it. In the soil the promptness and rapidity with which seeds 
absorb moisture will depend upon the points of contact. If 
the soil is not pressed closely about the seed but few points 
are in contact with it and a long time will be required for it 
to germinate. Therefore, we tramp the soil over the seed 
with the foot or hoe. By this means we also increase the 
capability or water pulling power of the soil, for moisture 
passes readily through soil particles which are in close con- 
tact and less readily when the soil is loose. 

The proper degree of warmth is essential. This varies with 
the species but the variation is not wide. 

Seeds of the common garden vegetables will germinate 
readily at a temperature of 50 to 55 degrees. Lettuce and 
radish will germinate at a lower temperature, 45 to 50 de- 

[28] 



grees. Peas will germinate at 32 to 40 degrees. Cucumber 
and squash seed require 60 degrees. 

These figures are close to the minimum or lowest tempera- 
ture. The most favorable temperatures are 5 to 10 degrees 
higher in all cases. It is useless, therefore, to plant seeds in 
soil that is too cold. 

Water drives air out of the soil. Working wet soil "pud- 
dles" it, shutting out air. Seeds will not germinate in soil 
that is too wet and will germinate very slowly in puddled 
soil. 



£29] 



INSURE YOUR HARVEST 

The gardener's faith may be shown by the manner in which 
he tills his garden. The summer months are the critical ones 
in the garden. Though the gardener may feel less inclined 
to hoe and rake than he did earlier in the season, the plants 
demand even closer attention if the table is to be supplied dur- 
ing the summer and the cellar is to hold an abundant supply 
of vegetables next winter. 

The gardener's motto at this time should be "Catch mois- 
ture; hold moisture." The demand for moisture as the plants 
grow and the warmer weather comes on constantly increases, 
moisture is needed for plant growth, and unless there is an 
abundant supply, growth ceases and the parts used for food 
fail to develop or are of such a nature as to be undesirable. 
Moisture, then, becomes the chief concern of the gardener at 
this time. Tillage is the chief means the average gardener 
has of insuring this essential of successful gardening. 

But the demand for moisture is not the only one made by 
the plant at this time. An abundance of available plant food 
is necessary for good yields. The manure or commercial fer- 
tilizer which is applied in preparing the soil will be of no use 
to the plant unless it becomes changed in the soil. Tillage not 
only aids in this change but it also helps make the food ma- 
terial, originally held in the soil particles, suitable for use by 
the plant. 

The old saying "Tillage is esentially manure" and "The best 
garden fertilizer is the hoe" indicate the value of tillage in 
giving the plant an abundant supply of available food. 

Weeds cause many a garden convert to backslide. In the 
conflict with weeds tillage is of prime importance. Proper 
tillage makes weeds an unimportant factor in gardening. 
Under some conditions it may not do so the first season, but 
unless quack grass or some weed of similar character is the 
offender, the conflict is a comparatively easy one. 

The importance of tillage makes the summer months the 
"Three T" period of gardening — the thorough, timely, tillage 
period. 

C31] 



Thorough Tillage 

Conserving ^oil moisture, making plant food available, and 
keeping out weeds are the objects of tillage. Thorough tillage 
is that tillage which produces conditions best fitted to accom- 
plish these results. The ideal way to accomplish them is to 
keep a shallow layer of soil, as nearly dustlike as practical, 
over the entire surface of the soil at all times. The method of 
securing this ideal matters little so long as the purpose is ac- 
complished. 

The first essential of success is proper preparation tillage 
early in the season. This should have been such as to create 
a large moisture-holding reservoir and to put the soil in a fine, 
fairly loose condition. If this was done, the following program 
is well adapted to maintain the desired mulch. 

1. Till the area to be planted immediately preceding sowing or 

planting. This gives a good seed bed and removes the 
• necessity of disturbing the seeds after planting. 

2. Till the area between the rows immediately after planting. 

The object is to loosen the soil compacted by tramping 
during the planting operations. 

3. Till the entire garden at least once a week if soil conditions 

permit. When vegetables planted close together cover 
the entire area between the rows tillage of these rows 
may cease. 

4. Till after each shower of sufficient extent to pack the sur- 

face soil. 

This tillage should be shallow. Deep tillage wou.d destroy 
many roots and possibly do more harm than good. 

Remember the object to be attained is a shallow layer of soil 
as nearly dustlike as practical over the entire surface. 

Timely Tillage 

"Don't put off till tomorrow what should be done today" pays 
big dividends if put into practice in gardening. "A stitch in 
time saves nine" when garden conditions are most favorable 
for tillage. 

Aim to destroy weeds just as they appear above the surface. 
It will save hard work in getting rid of them later. 

The soil mulch destroyed by a rain is restored much more 
easily by tillage before the surface becomes baked. A few 

[32] 



hours' delay at this time means more work and usually less 
satisfactory results than if the work had been done on time. 

Tillage may be untimely by working a soil which is too wet. 
Heavy loam or clay soils worked when too moist, cement or 
puddle and then bake. Their tilth is destroyed, and it becomes 
difficult or impossible to re-establish a good soil mulch. "Make 
haste slowly" on lieavy soils after a rain. Timely tillage on 
such soils means not tilling too soon, as well as not delaying 
too long, after a rain. 

If in doubt, take a handful of soil and squeeze it firmly. Till- 
age is safe if the soil falls apart or crumbles easily when the 
hand is opened. If the particles adhere tenaciously let it dry 
more before tilling. 

Tillage Tools 

The best tillage tools are the ones you can use most 
effectively in establishing and maintaining the soil mulch. 
Gardeners have their likes and dislikes regarding tools. What 
suits one does not suit another, but in any case the list does 
not need to be extensive. 

The spading fork is better than the ordinary spade for use in 
preparing the soil and will often be found useful even on 
gardens that are plowed. The hoe and rake are the chief 
tillage implements in the average small garden. If they are 
of the proper kind and properly used no others are necessary. 
The Norcross type of cultivator saves much time and does 
efficient work if properly used, and there is less danger of 
doing poor work with it than with the hoe. 

More than half the garden hoeing is less than half done. 
This is because most inexperienced and many experienced gar- 
deners do not know how to use the hoe as a tillage implement. 
The aim in hoeing should be to leave the entire surface fine, 
loose and level; hoeing properly done stirs all the soil possible. 
Many gardeners fall short of this by pulling a quantity of soil 
on top of a nundisturbed area. This leaves the surface in 
small hills and hollows. Then the hills are raked into the 
hollows and only about half the area is covered with an 
effective soil mulch. Operate the hoe not only so as to stir 
all the soil but also to leave it level and fine. In most hoeing 
the soil is moved too far. 

Many a gardener becomes so intent in hoeing that he over- 
looks the purpose of the hoeing. It does little good to estab- 

[33] 



lish a soil mulch and to destroy it immediately by tramping the 
loosened soil. Aim to have as few footprints visible after the 
hoeing is finished as practical. With this purpose in mind you 
will quickly devise ways of reducing the tramping without loss 
of time or efficiency in tillage. 

The small hoe and narrow rake are preferable to the larger 
sizes. They are easier to operate, can be used closer to the 
piants, and, if the soil is compact, better work can be done 
with less expenditure of energy. A three-cornered hoe with 
the handle attached at one corner (an onion hoe with a long 
handle) serves as both hoe and weeder, and does as good or 
better work with greater ease than the hoe with a large blade 
or the hand weeder. 

The garden rake, is essentially a "preparation tillage" tool 
but can be substituted for the hoe when the rows are far 
enough apart to permit of its use. Used with a slight chopping 
motion it saves time in establishing a soil mulch. The straight 
rake with straight teeth is preferred. 

The time saver in maintenance tillage is the Norcross type 
of hand cultivator. It is built on the plan of the wheel hoe or 
horse cultivator but is operated by hand with a motion similar 
to that used by most people in hoeing. 

Resolve to make your garden investment pay maximum 
dividends by thorough, timely tillage. 



134] 



PROTECT YOUR GARDEN 

If it is worth while to plant a garden, it is worth while to 
protect it. Insects cause heavy losses to garden crops where 
no effort is made to control them, while a few simple measures 
applied at the right time will usually entirely prevent such 
losses. 

One of the first things to do in the spring is to get the 
garden and fence corners free from weeds. At all times of the 
season gather up and destroy all old vines, stalks and refuse 
as soon as the crops are harvested. Refuse and weeds furnish 
food for insects and shelter them for the winter if left in the 
garden. 

Do not let insects get a start. After they once become 
numerous on the plants it does not take long for them to do a 
large amount of injury, especially on young plants. Every 
insect that you let live through the spring season will produce 
many more later. 

Where insects are few in number and are easily seen, they 
may be controlled by hand picking and destroying. But in 
most cases it is much more practical to spray the plants. 

Liquid sprays may be applied with a small hand sprayer 
which can be bought at a small cost. Dust sprays may be 
dusted through a cloth sack, or perforated tin can or by means 
of a dust gun. 

Use Poisons on These 

Poison sprays, poison mashes, or contact sprays may be used 
to eradicate certain garden pests. Here are some of the most 
common insects, together with the poisons to use on each 

of them. 

Chewing Insects. Insects that eat the leaves and tender 
parts of the plants may be controlled by spraying the plants 
with lead arsenate at the rate of 1 ounce (15 level teaspoons) 
to each gallon of water. When applied to plants with smooth 
foliage, such as cabbage, it is necessary to add an inch cube 
of common laundry soap to every gallon of spray to make it 

[35 1 



spread and stick better. Instead of using it as a spray, lead 
arsenate may be dusted on the plants early in the morning 
while they are still wet with dew. When used in this way it 
may be diluted with 3 to 5 times its weight of air-slaked lime 
or fine dust. Lead arsenate is preferable to Paris green be- 
cause it remains on the foliage longer, is not so likely to burn 
the leaves, and is cheaper. 

Cutworms cut off young plants near the surface of the soil 
and eat the foliage of older plants, feeding at night and hiding 
on the ground during the day. A small number of plants may 
be protected by cutting the tops and bottoms out of tin cans 
and placing them over the plants, pushing them well into the 
soil. Keeping down weeds and thorough cultivating of the 
soil is also of value. Larger areas may be protected by apply- 
ing poison bran mash to the soil in the late afternoon or early 
evening. Either broadcast the material or place in little heaps 
near the bases of the plants. Care should be taken to keep 
poultry and livestock away from it. 

To make up the poison bran mash mix 2 ounces Paris green 
or white arsenic or 4 ounces of arsenate of lead with 3 pounds 
of bran. Add 2 ounces of cheap syrup or molasses, i/^ orange 
or lemon finely ground and a small quantity of water. Then 
mix all together, adding enough water to make a crumbly 
mash. One half teaspoon lemon extract may be used instead 
of fruit. 

Grasshoppers may be controlled by poison bran mash made 
up as for cutworms. Tomatoes or melons may be substituted 
for oranges or lemons. The mash should be applied in the 
early morning so that it will not dry out before the insects feed 
on it. If the grasshoppers keep coming in from neighboring 
grass fields, scatter the mash along the edge of the garden 
toward the field and renew from time to time. 

Plant lice are small, soft-bodied insects which may be found 
massed together on the under sides of leaves and on tender 
shoots. They injure the plants by sucking the juices and for 
this reason cannot be controlled with arsenate of lead. They 
may be controlled by applying some contact spray, such as 
strong soap (preferably fish oil soap) at the rate of one-half 
pound to 4 gallons of water; or 40 per cent nicotine sulfate 
(Black Leaf 40), 1 teaspoon to 1 gallon of water with the addi- 
tion of an inch cube of soap. The spray must actually cover 

[36] 



the insects and should be forced well into curled leaves. If 
all are not killed by the first application, the spray should be 
repeated. 

Kill These Directly 

Some common garden insects cannot be reached or con- 
trolled by sprays, and must be removed by gathering the in- 
sects and destroying them, or by destroying their eggs. 

Squash bugs cannot readily be controlled by means of 
sprays. They will collect under pieces of board or burlap and 
may be gathered and destroyed early in the morning. The 
reddish brown eggs are laid in clusters on the under sides of 
the leaves and may be gathered and destroyed. 



BE CAREFUL OF POISONS 

Lead arsenate, white arsenic, and Paris green, recom- 
mended in this circular, are deadly poisons, and care 
should be taken to keep them away from children and 
domestic animals. Bean plants should not be sprayed 
after the pods have formed, nor tomatoes after the fruit 
is nearly full grown. There is no danger of poisoning to 
the consumer from eating sprayed cabbage because the 
cabbage head grows from the inside and the outer leaves 
are removed before cooking. The outer leaves, however, 
may have enough poison on them to kill domestic 
animals. 



Repellants Keep These Out 

Many insects which cannot easily be poisoned or killed 
directly may be kept out of the garden to a greater or less 
extent by the use of repellants— which keep the insects away, 
even though they do not kill them. 

Root Maggots. The cabbage maggot may be controlled on 
cabbage and cauliflower plants by placing tarred felt discs 
about the stems of the plant at the surface of the soil, just as 
they are being set out. After the maggots have begun to work 
on the roots there is no practical remedy. 

[37] 



For maggots attacking onions, radish and turnips no satis- 
factory remedy has as yet been found. Infested plants should 
be pu'.led up and destroyed. Small beds of these may be grown 
under cheesecloth screens. 

Tarnished Plant bugs, dull grayish to brownish pests about 
1/4 inch long, fly readily when disturbed and cannot be con- 
trolled with sprays. They may be driven from the garden by 
dusting the rows with wood ashes, working from one side to 
the other. 

Flea Beetles. These little black jumping beetles are quite 
often serious on potatoes, tomatoes, cabbages, beans, and simi- 
lar plants. Arsenate of lead seems to have little effect on 
them, but they can be kept away from the plants with Bor- 
deaux mixture. This is made up as follows: 4 ounces blue- 
stone, 4 ounces quicklime, 12 quarts water. Disoslve the blue- 
stone in a wooden or earthenware vessel, using hot water, then 
add water to make 6 quarts. Slake the lime by adding water 
a little at a time. When slaked make up to 6 quarts. Pour the 
two solutions together through a strainer while stirring. The 
spray is then ready to apply. Both the upper and lower leaf 
surfaces should be covered. A combination of Bordeaux mix- 
ture and poison may be used. 

Cucumber Beetles. These yellow and black striped or 
spotted beetles are also not easily affected by poison, but 
their food plants, such as cucumber, squash, and melons, can 
be made unattractive to them by dusting with a mixture of 
powdered lime and tobacco dust. Mix 1 pound of tobacco dust 
in 2 pounds of well-pulverized lime and dust the mixture onto 
the plants using a gunny sack or a tin can with small holes in 
the bottom. A small number of plants may be protected by 
placing cages over them. These cages may be made by cut- 
ting barrel hoops in two, nailing the halves together at right 
angles to each other, and covering with cheese cloth. Planting 
a large number of seeds per hill will help to get a better 
stand. 



[38] 



STRAWBERRIES AND RASPBERRIES FOR 
HOME AND MARKET 

Raspberry Culture 

Two kinds (species) of raspberries are commonly cultivated 
for home use and for market, the red and the black— the latter 
known as blackcaps or simply "caps." 

These kinds, aside from their color, differ in the manner in 
which they are propagated. 

Red raspberries are propagated by "suckers" which grow 
from the roots of the parent plant. In the black-caps plants 
grow from the tops of the branches when these are covered 
with soil or are held in place by a lump of earth or other 
means. 

Soils: Raspberries thrive best on deep, well drained soil, 
clay loam with clay subsoil or on gravely clay loam; in other 
words, well drained "cool" soils. Don't plant raspberries on 
thin, gravelly, or light sandy soil and expect to raise profitable 
crops. 

For paying crops apply plenty of stable manure. 

Red Raspberries 

The culture of the red raspberry is influenced at every step 
by its habit of producing suckers or shoots from the roots. 
The first year of its growth a number of suckers will develop 
from the parent plant but not more than needed. The follow- 
ing year, however, and each succeeding year, innumerable 
suckers will spring up, not only close to the plants but between 
them and in fact wherever the roots extend. It is plain that 
this surplus growth of plants must be restricted or the field 
will soon become merely a brush patch, yielding little or no 
fruit. 

Hills vs. Matted Row 

Two methods of culture are in common use by growers, the 
hill and the matted row. Good paying crops may be grown by 
either method. 

[39] 



In the case of the hill system the plants are set 2 to 2/2 feet 
apart and the rows 6 feet apart. After the first season the 
suckers are confined to hills, 8 to 10 shoots or "canes" allowed 
to grow and all others removed. 

In the matted row the plants are set 12 inches apart in the 
row and the suckers allowed to form a matted row 12 to 15 
inches wide and the canes 6 to 8 inches apart. The matted 
row usually yields more fruit than the hill system. 

Setting the Plants 

One method of planting is to plow shallow furi'ows for the 
rows, after the field has been plowed and harrowed, then set 
the plants the required distance and cover the roots, using a 
hoe or spade and tramping firmly about the roots. If the 
ground is mellow three to four inches of soil over the roots 
is enough and not too much. 

If a large field is to be planted and a number of planters 
work systematically no doubt the furrow method will save 
time but the average planter will set by hand, using a spade. 

Cut back the tops at planting time, leaving only short stubs. 
Where available a plant-setting machine commonly used for 
setting tobacco and cabbage plants, can be used successfully 
if a special, larger and deeper cutting hoe is used. 

As the season advances a number of shoots or suckers will 
appear. These develop into plants which may produce a little 
fruit the followfng year. 

Pinching 

Some growers advise pinching the growing shoots the first 
season when about eighteen inches in height to encourage 
branching, but this is not an important matter. Something 
may be gained by pinching but certainly no harm will result 
if it is not done. Cutting back the matured canes the follow- 
ing spring is a matter of the highest importance as will be 
shown later. 

Cultivation and Intercropping 

The ground should be kept clean and mellow all the season 
by frequent cultivation and hoeing. Vegetables may be grown 
between the rows the first season but don't plant strawberries 

1401 



between raspberry rows, as the strawberry plants will inter- 
fere with cultivation or mulching of the raspberries the fol- 
lowing season when it is most needed. Number of plants 
required: Three thousand six hundred and thirty plants are 
required for an acre when planted 2 by 6 feet. 

Black Caps 

Black caps require rather more room than the reds. The 
reds are upright growers while the blacks are more spreading 
in habit. Three feet is close enough in the row and strong 
growing varieties ought to have even more room. The rows 
may be 7 feet apart. An acre planted 3 by 6 feet requires 
2,420 plants. 

In contrast to this, one successful grower plants black-caps 
eighteen inches apart in the rows and renews the plantation 
at the end of three years, taking only one full crop. 

Planting 

The "tip" plant of the black raspberry as received from the 
nursery is a flattened, compact bunch of fine roots with a 
single stem arising from the center. Around this stem are 
numerous buds that develop into other stems or "canes." If 
this bud cluster is covered too deep with heavy soil the buds 
will not push through. We are therefore confronted with the 
problem of covering the roots deep enough so they will not dry 
out and shallow enough to avoid smothering the buds. It can 
be done and the least difficulty will be experienced in soil 
that has been well prepared before planting. 

Cultivation the first season is much the same as for the reds 
except that the black caps do not form suckers from the roots. 
The only canes or stems that grow will be from the bud cluster 
mentioned above. Usually there are not too many of these the 
first year, five or six, and are all retained. 

As in the case of reds there is no objection to growing an 
annual crop between the rows the first season. Two rows of 
beans, one row of potatoes or other root crops, may be grown 
between each two rows of raspberries without serious detri- 
ment to the berry plant. 

No fruit will be borne the year the plants are set out, either 
on reds or blacks but every effort should be made to secure a 

[41] 



strong, healthy growth of plants. Deep, rich soil and thor- 
ough cultivation will produce such plants. But little fruit will 
be borne the year following planting, the second growth year, 
but thorough cultivation must not be neglected for starved 
plants will never bear profitable crops. The second year after 
planting, third growth year, one-half a normal or full crop 
may be expected and a full crop the next succeeding years. 

A raspberry plantation should yield profitable crops for four 
to six years. Many plantations are fruited for a longer period, 
eight to ten years or even longer, but in the opinion of many 
successful growers, the expense of cultivation in these older 
fields, the difficulty of securing a vigorous growth and the 
accumulation of insect and disease pests render it unprofitable 
to fruit raspberries longer than five or six years. 

Trellis 

It has been the universal practice in the past to build a 
trellis or support for raspberry plants, both red and black, but 
this is now rarely done. Growers have now learned that prop- 
erly pruned plants require no trellis or other support. This 
subject of pruning will be discussed later but mention is made 
of it here as a matter of encouragement to beginners. 

Varieties: As in the case of other fruits, opinions of grow- 
ers differ widely when it comes to selecting varieties. The 
following kinds are popular with Wisconsin growers: 

Red — Marlboro, King, Cuthbert, in the order named. 

Black — Plum Farmer, Cumberland, Gregg, as named. 

Other Kinds 

Purple Raspberries — The Columbian, Shaffers Colossal and 
perhaps other varieties, strong growing kinds sometimes pro- 
ducing canes twelve to fifteen feet in height and an inch 
or more in diameter, bearing purplish fruit, are hybrids pro- 
duced by crossing the red and the black raspberry. 

The pufple or purple-cane raspberries are better adapted to 
the home garden than to growing for market. They are not 
more productive than the red or the black, the rank growth 
interferes with proper cultivation and involves greater expense 
in picking. Also the very unattractive color of the fruit les- 
sens its market value. 

[42 1 



Everbearing Raspberries — The so-called everbearing rasp- 
berries are to be classified with the everbearing strawberries, 
interesting and attractive to the amateur, but of little value 
to the commercial grower. The Saint Regis is the best known 
of the everbearing type. 

After the First Year 

The suggestions so far given include only planting and care 
the first season. 

Reds: During the first season the reds should make a 
growth of 18 inches to 2 feet. The following spring these 
young canes should be topped or cut back to a uniform height 
of about IS inches. In the spring of the next and following 
years the canes should grow to a height of three to five feet 
and these should be cut back, in the spring, to a height of 
thirty inches. Weak and diseased canes should be removed. 

Pruning improves the quality of the fruit. If all the buds 
are left more fruit will set than the plant can properly mature. 
If the plants are not pruned the fruit will be borne so high as 
to suffer from wind and will also increase the diflficulty of 
picking it. It is also probable that the quantity of the fruit is 
increased by pruning. 

As stated above the number of canes retained for fruiting 
should not be more than eight to ten if in hills or closer than 
six to eight inches if in a matted row and the row twelve to 
fifteen inches wide. This caution to cut out surplus plants of 
the red raspberry confining the growth for fruitage to a com- 
paratively few canes and these severely cut back every spring 
cannot be too often repeated. 

Black Caps: The black caps at the end of the first season 
should have two to five stout canes to each hill, more or less 
branched, two to three feet in height. After the first year the 
canes may attain a height of five feet, much branched and 
curving to the ground. These stems or canes should be pruned 
as in the case of the reds. The cutting should consist in short- 
ening the branches which spring from the main stems one-half 
or more, or if not branched in cutting the canes back to a 
height of twenty-four to thirty inches. 

Cultivation: Cultivation for the second and succeeding sea- 
sons should be the same as for the first season, clean, thorough 

[43] 



cultivation to keep the soil stirred and to keep down weeds 
and grass. 

Mulching: If stable manure or other coarse material is 
available in sufficient quantity it will pay to apply it heavily 
around the plants every year. This mulch will serve to keep 
down weeds, conserve moisture and add fertility. 

Caution 

The raising of raspberries for market in Wisconsin at the 
present time promises to be a profitable business and it is 
very unlikely that it will be overdone in the near future. At 
the present time the acreage has so far decreased as to be 
almost negligible.- 

While the policy of the Horticultural Society at the present 
time is to encourage the planting of berries, both to benefit 
growers and in order that there may be a plentiful supply of 
this delicious fruit, those who intend to plant are invited to 
carefully consider the following points: 

Only those who have a natural aptitude for this kind of work 
or in lieu of this recognize the fact that gardening and fruit 
growing require vastly more work per acre and closer atten- 
tion to details than farm crops and firmly determine on close 
application to these details, should engage in it. Given this 
aptitude or its equivalent in determination to succeed there are 
other essentid,ls: suitable soil, proximity to market and avail- 
able pickers. 

The question of market should be considered relatively. If 
the ultimate market is one hundred miles distant and the berry 
field one-half mile from a shipping point it may be a nearer 
market than one requiring a haul of ten miles to a point 
where the berries go on sale. 

Fifteen to twenty good pickers will be required for each 
acre of red raspberries in full bearing and it is a matter of 
first importance that these be available every day during the 
fruit picking season. 

Now if these requirements seem formidable none are incap- 
rble of accomplishment. 



[44] 



Strawberry Culture 

The purpose of this article is to help the beginner; it is not 
designed as a treatise on strawberry growing and no attempt 
will be made to distinguish between growing for home use 
and for market as the methods are the same in both cases. 

Soils: Any soil that will produce a good crop of corn will 
produce a good crop of strawberries. Strawberries are grown 
for market in Wisconsin on light sandy, gravely loam, black 
prairie and light clay soils and successfully in all cases. The 
physical properties of the soil are of less importance than 
drainage and fertility. 

Site: Level ground is best for strawberries or any other 
fruit crop. A few days in earliness may be gained by planting 
on a south slope or ripening may be retarded somewhat if the 
plantation is on a north slope but the difference is so slight 
that it rarely offsets the added expense and inconvenience of 
cultivation on sloping ground and the necessity of planting 
so as to avoid erosion. The mid-season varieties are the most 
profitable ones for Wisconsin growers. 

The so-called early varieties are shy bearers and as a rule 
lack vigor. These varieties may yield a few early berries but 
rapidly fall off and cannot be depended on for the main crop. 

Preparation of Soils: Don't plant strawberries on sod land, 
that is, land on which grass was grown for two or more sea- 
sons, as such soils are quite sure to be infested with the white 
grub which will feed on the roots of the strawberry plants. 

Land intended for strawberries should be plowed in the fall 
and only lightly disked or harrowed in the spring just before 
planting, as newly set strawberry plants do not start well in 
soil that is very loose and mellow. 

The choicest selection for a strawberry field is land that was 
heavily manured the previous season and planted to corn, po- 
tatoes or other cultivated crop and fall plowed. Under these 
conditions the manure is thoroughly incorporated into the soil 
and weeds are subdued to a large extent. 

Manure: Strawberries require a soil rich in plant food in 
order to produce paying crops. It will be a waste of time to 
plant for market on thin, worn out soils without first manuring. 
If stable manure can be had apply ten to twenty-five loads per 
acre. 

145] 



It should not be inferred from this that all land must be 
heavily fertilized with stable manure before planting as an 
average farm or garden land that has been fairly treated as to 
fertilizers in former years will produce a good crop of plants 
the first year, if thoroughly cultivated. 

Plants and Planting: Runner plants of the preceding year's 
growth are the only ones that should be used. Plants that 
have once borne fruit are not suitable, scarcely worth planting. 
Nurserymen furnish only runner plants. If plants are received 
from the nursery packed tightly in bundles, open the bundles 
at once, separate the plants and either pack in boxes or bas- 
kets with damp moss, chaff or sawdust, separating the roots 
or else "heel-in" outdoors. 

"Heeling-in" in briefest terms is temporary planting. Dig a 
trench just deep enough to admit the roots; lay the plants in 
side by side and cover the roots with earth leaving the crowns 
exposed. 

Trimming: For convenience in planting the roots may be 
trimmed. In case of heavy root growth the roots may be 
shortened to four inches in length. Close trimming, to two 
inches or less, is to be avoided as these short roots will not 
reach moist soil. Remove all leaves but one or two before 
planting. 

Strawberry plants may be set as close as eighteen inches in 
the row and the rows four feet apart, but for most varieties 
twenty-four inches in the row is better. At two by four feet 
5,445 plants are required for an acre. 

Plants are usually set by the spade method, two persons 
working in company. 

The plant setting machine commonly used for setting to- 
bacco and cabbage plants is also successfully employed in set- 
ting strawberry plants on a large scale. 

One thing is highly important, viz., the proper depth of set- 
ting. If the plants are set too deep the "crown" or growing 
point is covered; if set too high the roots are exposed. In 
either case the plant may fail to grow. With a little practice 
the right way may be found. 

Cultivation: Keep the soil loose, mellow and free from 
weeds throughout the season by frequent cultivation. An 
adjustable fine-tooth cultivator is a good tool to use. Run close 
to the plants at first and as the runners stretch out into the 

[46] 



space between the rows, close up the cultivator allowing the 
plants to set thickly in matted rows two feet wide, thus leav- 
ing a two-foot path between the rows. In case of too vigorous 
growth attach a rolling coulter to the cultivator to remove the 
surplus runners. Care should be taken to keep the rows full of 
plants by training runners so as to fill vacant places. 

This is what is known as the "matted row" system, the most 
practical plan for the average grower. Where there is a de- 
mand for very large berries, uniform in size, the single or dou- 
ble "hedge row" or hill system may be adopted. 

If the ground is rich and the season favorable too many 
plants may set. In this case as the season advances remove 
the surplus until the plants in the row stand about four inches 
apart. 

Remove all blossoms the first season as soon as th^y appear. 
All of the energies of the parent plants must be directed to 
plant making the first season and not wasted in the production 
of flowers and fruit. 

Considerable hoeing and weeding will be needed the first 
season for the beds must be kept clean. Grass and weeds rob 
the strawberry plants of food and moisture. We should en- 
deavor to secure a good stand of strong, vigorous, deeply 
rooted plants the first season; lacking this we cannot expect 
a profitable crop of fruit next year. 

Perfect and Imperfect Flowers: Some varieties of straw- 
berries produce only imperfect flowers. These flowers have 
no stamens and are therefore incapable of self-pollination. It 
is important to keep this fact in mind when selecting varieties, 
for if only imperfect-flowered varieties are selected no fruit 
will be borne. A part of the plantation at least must be of 
kinds bearing perfect flowers. Nurserymen indicate in their 
catalogues the imperfect varieties by the abbreviation "Imp." 

Varieties to Plant: The amateur as well as the professional 
soon learns that in the selection of varieties he must be largely 
guided by local conditions of soil, climate, etc., and that no list 
can be given that will be satisfactory over the whole state. 
However, two varieties, Warfleld and Dunlap, seem to give 
satisfaction over a wider range of soils and climate in Wis- 
consin than any other standard varieties. Some growers ad- 
vocate planting only Dunlap. 

[47] 



Fall Bearing or So-called Everbearing Strawberries 

Within a few years a new group of strawberries has ap- 
peared, the so-called "everbearers." These kinds do not, as 
the name indicates, bear throughout the whole season but pro- 
duce a crop at the same season as the standard varieties and, 
after a short rest period, a second and often a third and even 
a fourth crop, frequently fruiting from June to November. 

Enough berries, a straggling few, are borne between crops 
to partly justify the name "everbearing." 

These kinds are most excellent for the home garden but the 
beginner who is growing for market should not plant heavily 
of the everbearers but stick to the standard sorts. The expe- 
rienced grower, especially if he has an irrigation plant, can 
usually grow them profitably. The most popular kinds are 
Americus; Progressive and Superb. Progressive seem to be 
the most prolific; Superb large fruit, and Americus more 
nearly an all season or everbearer. 

Mr. M. S. Kellogg of Janesville, who has grown the "ever- 
bearers" since the first commercial varieties appeared, sixteen 
years ago, has this to say of them: 

"This class of fruit has passed the experimental stage and 
has become a necessity for the home garden and for the com- 
mercial grower when conditions of soil and market are favor- 
able. In growing the Everbearers the following is the most 
approved method of culture. Plant as early in spring as the 
conditions of soil and weather will permit, keep all bloom re- 
moved from the plants until about one month before you wish 
the fruit to begin to ripen. Allow the plants to produce from 
four to eight runners and when these are rooted remove all 
other runners as soon as they appear. You will then have a 
hedge row or half matted row system and with clean culture 
and good fertile soil you will get lots of berries. If you want 
fruit do not let them make too many plants. A bed of Ever- 
bearers after having fruited the year of planting should be well 
covered and can be carried over to fruit the following June if 
desired or the fruit stem can be kept off the second season 
until July 15th and they will bear again in the fall. Right va- 
rieties, rich soil and good culture will win but the greatest of 
these is GOOD culture." 



[48] 



Winter Protection: Strawberry plants must be given win- 
ter protection, a light covering, not so much to prevent freez- 
ing as to prevent alternate freezing and thawing. Marsh hay 
is the ideal material for this purpose. Clean straw is also 
used but as it usually contains weed seeds hay is preferable. 
About two tons of hay will be required for an acre which is 
equivalent to a heavy crop of growing hay. 

This covering should be left on until growth starts in the 
spring when about two-thirds of it should be raked into the 
spaces between the rows where it will serve to keep down 
weeds, retain moisture, keep the fruit clean and furnish a "car- 
pet" for the pickers. 

The balance of the mulching should be left on the plant row 
and the plants allowed to push through it. The more mulch- 
ing left on the row the better so long as the plants are able 
to work through it as it serves the double purpose of keeping 
down weeds and retaining moisture. 

It is not well to remove any part of the mulch too early in 
the spring as it serves to retard the growth of the plants and 
thus furnish security against late frosts. In fact care should 
be taken to leave the mulch on until the new leaves under the 
cover show white. 

After the First Year 
It is the practice of many growers to harvest but one crop 
of berries and at the end of the picking season plow under the 
plants and use the land for a crop of rutabaga, turnip or buck- 
wheat. In favorable seasons late cabbages or the early ma- 
turing varieties of sweet corn may be planted. 

If it is desired to carry the field over another year, after 
picking cut the plants close to the ground with a mower and 
after they have dried burn them. 

In order to avoid injury to the roots by fire the mowed 
plants and mulching should be thoroughly dried so as to burn 
quickly. 

No cultivation is given the second season but any strong 
growing weeds which appear such as dock, thistle, etc., may 
be readily cut out by the use of a broad chisel attached to a 
fork handle. The plants are mulched in the fall the same as 
for the first year. 

Strawberries when grown as here advised, by the matted 
row system, cannot be profitably cropped more than two years. 

[49] 



TREE FRUITS 

Planning and Planting the Orchard 

Soil and Site: Fruit trees require well drained soil. The 
character of the soil is of less importance than drainage. 
Much has been written about the right kind of soil for 
apples, cherries and plums, great stress being laid on the 
character of soil necessary to produce paying crops. Some 
of it is true but a little observation will show many very fine 
orchards in Wisconsin on wide ranges of soil. The very thin 
soils of Door county produce wonderful orchards, so also do 
the deep loamy soils of Crawford county while the very oldest 
apple trees in the state are growing in the black loams of 
Jefferson and Rock counties. Don't worry too much about the 
right kind of soil. 

As a commercial proposition it is well to take account of 
the fact that trees on deep clay loam soil will require longer 
to come into profitable bearing than those on light, sandy or 
gravely soils,— and live longer. 

For the home orchard of a dozen trees plant near the house 
regardless of the nature of the soil,-if it is well drained 
Many people believe that an orchard should always be planted 
on sloping ground. This idea probably arises from the fact 
that our forefathers in Massachusetts and Virginia planted 
apples on hill sides but this was because it was found that 
trees would grow there, thus reserving the level land for corn 
or other crops which required cultivation. Level well dramed 
land is preferable on account of ease of cultivation. If only 
sloping land is available choose a north slope rather than a 
south slope. 

Air Drainage: This is also important. A free circulation 
of air through the tree tops hinders the development of dis- 
ease and insects. If trees are planted in a low spot where 
cold air settles the fruit buds may suffer from frost. 

Causes of Failure: Many thousands of trees are set out 
every year in this state; some live, many die. 

[51] 



In some cases the nurseryman is at fault. More often the 
planter is at fault. The trees may arrive in good condition 
but in the rush of spring work the bundle is laid aside until a 
convenient time arrives to plant, or the trees may be im- 
properly planted. 

Trees and plarils in small lots are packed in bundles at the 
nursery. If the work is well done the roots are packed in 
damp moss or excelsior and this covered with burlap. The 
tops should also be completely covered either with rye straw 
or burlap. This packing is usually sufficient to protect the 
plants from drying until they have arrived at their destina- 
tion, but is not intended to preserve them longer. 

Never under any circumstances leave the trees in the ship- 
ping package, even over night. If possible plant at once, 
otherwise open the bundle and "heel-in" the trees or plants. 

"Heeling-in" is temporary planting. To do this dig a trench 
wide and deep enough to accommodate the roots and with one 
side sloping. 

Open the bundle, lay the trees separately in the trench with 
tops resting on sloping bank. Cover the roots with moist earth 
sifting it well among the roots, tramping firmly. In addition 
a mulch of straw or manure will help to preserve moisture. 
Treated in this manner trees may remain in the trench for 
several days if it is absolutely necessary to leave them there. 
If trees are shrivelled when received bend down the tops after 
heeling-in and cover them with moist earth. Often in two or 
three days they will be found to be plump and fresh. 

Planting: The ground should be deeply plowed and well 
cultivated before planting. Do not set fruit trees in sod. The 
grass roots will reach out and rob the trees of food and water. 
If you cannot devote a piece of land to trees alone and keep 
it in cultivation, do not attempt fruit growing as the results 
will be disappointing. 

Dig holes large enough to accommodate the roots after these 
have been cut back to sound wood. Trim broken and crushed 
roots back to sound wood, do not cut off more. Don't worry 
about the fine, fibrous roots about which so much has been 
written, — these are dead anyway if the tree has been out of 
the ground more than a few hours, — take care of the larger 
roots for it is from these that growth starts. 

[52] 



The hole should be deep enough to admit setting the tree 
about two inches deeper than it stood in the nursery. Spread 
out the roots, sift fine earth about them and pack firmly with 
the feet. If the earth is moist and mellow it cannot be 
tramped too firmly. It must be in close contact with the roots 
in order to enable them to take up the water it contains. 

Pruning: The tree is now safely anchored in the ground 
but the work is not finished. At this point arises the most 
common cause of failure: some of the branches must be re- 
moved or the tree is apt to perish. 

Before removal from the nursery the tree had sufficient 
roots to supply all of its buds with water. In digging, most of 
the roots have been (necessarily) removed, but the buds are 
left. When growth begins every healthy bud will push out and 
call on the roots for water to feed its newborn leaves. The 
very limited supply that the reduced root system can pump 
up will be distributed equally and as a result none may have 
enough to develop its leaves and without leaves the tree must 
perish. We must, therefore, reduce the number of these water 
pumps by removing one-half to three-fourths of the buds. 

The drier the ground and weather the more we should cut 
off. The manner in which the cutting is done will depend to 
a great extent upon the kind of tree. In apples, plums, etc., 
we need to bear in mind the ultimate shape of the tree. The 
frame-work upon which the branch system is built is deter- 
mined largely at this time. Remove crowding, crossing, and 
interfering branches. Aim to leave the main branches spirally 
about the stem rather than opposite. The lower opposite 
branches in fruit trees form bad forks that may split down 
later. Don't be afraid to cut; failure will result unless much 
cutting is done. 

Distance to Plant: Apple and crab trees should be planted 
24x24 feet which will require seventy-five trees to the acre. 

Plums and cherries may be planted as close as 16x20 feet 
but 20x20 feet is better. At 20x20 feet 108 trees are required 
for an acre. 

Cultivation and Cropping: The orchard must be cultivated 
for several years after planting if profitable returns are ex- 
pected. Weeds and grass must be kept down and the soil 
stirred to encourage growth. There is no need, however, of 

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devoting all of the space between the rows to the trees the 
first four or five years, hence intercropping is suggested. 

Beans, garden peas, potatoes or other hoed crops may be 
grown without serious detriment to the trees, but corn, except 
possibly sweet corn, ought not to be planted in the young 
orchard as it takes too much from the soil and shades the 
young trees. Cultivation should cease soon after July 1st in 
order to permit ripening of the wood growth. 

Protectors: To prevent damage by mice and rabbits during 
winter the trunks of the trees should be covered with wire 
screen or tarred paper. If the paper is used it should be re- 
moved in the spring. 

Buying Trees: Buy only two year old trees of apple. One 
year cherry trees if well grown in the nursery are often as 
good if not better than two year old. Two year old plum 
trees are usually sent out by nurseries. Buy of Wisconsin 
nurserymen. We have many reliable nursery firms in our 
own state who can furnish any of these varieties. Why buy 
elsewhere? 

Place your order in fall or winter for early spring delivery. 
Do not plant fruit trees in the fall. 

Varieties 

Apples: The varieties named below are all standard, re- 
liable and hardy and have been thoroughly tested in Wisconsin 
for fifty years or more. 

For the home orchard of a dozen apple trees the following 
selection will give satisfaction: 3 Duchess (early), 5 Wealthy 
(mid-season), 4 Northwestern Greening (winter). If a greater 
variety is desired add Mcintosh (mid-season), Tolman Sweet 
(winter), and Windsor (winter). For north-central and north- 
ern Wisconsin substitute Patten Greening for Northwestern 
and omit Mcintosh. 

Do not plant Transcendent crab anywhere in Wisconsin on 
account of its tendency to blight, plant Martha or Hyslop 
instead. The commercial grower will want to add to the 
above. A full list of tested varieties will be found in the 
Annual Report of this Society. (Sent free to members). 

Plums: Surprise, DeSoto, Hawkeye, all natives, all reliably 
hardy anywhere in Wisconsin and all sure croppers. 

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None of the European or Japanese plums are long-lived in 
Wisconsin but trees of certain varieties often live to bear 
several crops. 

Try: Green Gage, Lombard and Moore's Arctic for Euro- 
pean and Burbank for Japanese. 

Cherries: Where cherries thrive plant Early Richmond 
and Montmorency. 

Pruning: Prune tops severely as soon as planted, removing 
50 to 75 per cent of branches. 

Care: Cultivate often enough until midsummer to keep 
down weeds and grass and to keep soil mellow. 



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